Graphene has been shown to enhance antigen presentation to CD8+ T cells, as well as stimulate innate immune responses and inflammatory factors.

Its properties, such as large surface area, stability in water and high aspect ratio, make it a suitable candidate for the delivery of biological substances. Graphene-based nanomaterials have recently attracted significant attention as a new type of vaccine adjuvants due to their potential role in activating immune responses.

Due to the limited functionality of some approved human adjuvants, the development of new versatile adjuvants is urgently required. Research on the immunological and biomedical use of graphene oxide (GO) indicates that these nanocarriers possess excellent physicochemical properties, acceptable biocompatibility, and high drug loading capacity.

Graphene-based nanocarriers could also improve the functioning of certain immune cells such as dendritic cells and macrophages, through specific signaling pathways. However, GO injection can lead to significant oxidative stress and inflammation.

Various surface functionalization protocols have been used to reduce possible adverse effects of GO, such as GO aggregation in biological fluids and inducing cell death. Additionally, these modifications improve the properties of functionalized GO, making it an excellent support and adjuvant. Highlighting the different physicochemical and structural properties of GO and its derivatives has led to their application in various therapeutic and drug delivery areas. In this review, we have endeavored to elaborate on different aspects of GO.

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